Lesson Notes

Proto-Germanic is the reconstructed ancestor of all Germanic languages, including English. It developed from prehistoric languages spoken in Scandinavia and northern Germany around the 1st century AD.

• Proto-Germanic was a fully inflected language with five grammatical cases.
• It already had a complex system of consonants and vowels.
• Although no written records of Proto-Germanic exist, it has been reconstructed using comparative methods.

The origins of Proto-Germanic, and therefore of English, can be traced back even further to a family of languages known as Indo-European. These languages were spoken in Eastern Europe and western Asia around 4000 BC.

• Indo-European is the ancestor of many of the world’s languages, from English and Spanish to Russian and Hindi.
• It was a highly inflected language, like Proto-Germanic.
• As with Proto-Germanic, there are no existing written records of Indo-European, but linguists have reconstructed it using comparative methods.

• Over thousands of years, Indo-European split into several branches, including Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Balto-Slavic, and Germanic.
• The Germanic branch evolved into Proto-Germanic, which in turn gave rise to Old English, starting the journey of the English language that we will now begin exploring.

Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest form of the English language. It came about as a result of the migration and settlement of Germanic tribes in Britain, particularly the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.

• The language was highly inflected, meaning that words changed their form to express different grammatical categories.
• Word order was more flexible than in modern English.
• Example of Old English: “Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum, þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon.” (Listen! We of the Spear-Danes in the days of yore, of those clan-kings heard of their glory.)

• The Viking invasions introduced Norse words into the language.
• The Norman Conquest in 1066 marked a significant change, as French and Latin words were introduced into English.

Middle English is the form of English spoken after the Norman Conquest until the late 15th century. It’s marked by heavy French influence and the simplification of Old English’s inflectional system.

• Middle English had a simpler grammatical structure compared to Old English.
• French and Latin influence increased the vocabulary.
• Example of Middle English: “Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote” (When April with its sweet-smelling showers Has pierced the drought of March to the root).

• The Great Vowel Shift, a major change in pronunciation, began in the late Middle English period.
• The introduction of the printing press in 1476 by William Caxton played a significant role in standardizing the English language.

Early Modern English is the stage of the English language used from the beginning of the Tudor period until the English Interregnum and Restoration, or from the transition from Middle English in the late 15th century to the transition to Modern English during the mid-to-late 17th century.

• The Great Vowel Shift, which began during the Middle English period, was completed during this time, resulting in significant changes in pronunciation.
• Many more Latin and Greek words entered the language as a result of the Renaissance.
• Example of Early Modern English: “All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players.” (Shakespeare)

• The British Empire’s growth led to English coming into contact with many different languages, resulting in the adoption of many foreign words.
• The establishment of the first English-speaking colonies in North America in the 17th century began the spread of English around the world.

Late Modern English has been shaped by the Industrial Revolution, the British Empire’s expansion, and the emergence of the United States as a major world power.

• The vocabulary expanded significantly due to the Industrial Revolution and the British Empire’s expansion.
• English has become more simplified and less inflected.
• Example of Late Modern English: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.” (Charles Dickens)

• English is now a global language and is used by many people as a second language.
• It continues to change and evolve, with new words and phrases being added all the time.

English has evolved from Old English through Middle English, Early Modern English, to the Late Modern English we use today. Each period has seen significant changes in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, influenced by various historical events.

1. What major event in 1066 significantly changed Old English?
2. What was the Great Vowel Shift?
3. How did the Renaissance influence Early Modern English?
4. What are some of the factors that have influenced the vocabulary of Late Modern English?
5. How has English changed from Old English to the present?